Johann H van Niekerk. 2014: Population structure and mating system of the Red-crested Korhaan (Lophotis ruficrista) in South Africa. Avian Research, 5(1): 9. DOI: 10.1186/s40657-014-0009-3
Citation: Johann H van Niekerk. 2014: Population structure and mating system of the Red-crested Korhaan (Lophotis ruficrista) in South Africa. Avian Research, 5(1): 9. DOI: 10.1186/s40657-014-0009-3

Population structure and mating system of the Red-crested Korhaan (Lophotis ruficrista) in South Africa

More Information
  • Corresponding author:

    Johann H van Niekerk, thirstland2@gmail.com

  • Received Date: 07 Dec 2014
  • Accepted Date: 08 Dec 2014
  • Available Online: 24 Apr 2022
  • Publish Date: 23 Dec 2014
  • Background 

    The mating system of the korhaans and bustards in southern Africa is either based on polygyny or monogamy. The Red-crested Korhaan (Lophotis ruficrista) has been described as polygynous but otherwise very little is known about its breeding biology. The aims were to describe the population structure and male behavior during breeding.

    Methods 

    The data collected for this paper was mainly based on field transect surveys carried out in 2009, 2010 and 2011. The population structure of the Red-crested Korhaan in the temperate Borakalalo Game Reserve (BGR) was compared with that in the arid Molopo Nature Reserve (MNR) (both situated in the North West province of South Africa). The study was mainly conducted in the BGR but additional work was conducted in the MNR for comparison.

    Results 

    The difference in mean group sizes between MNR (1.03) and BGR (1.07) was statistically not significant. Group sizes were not affected by climate despite the fact that the BGR received about 650 mm precipitation per annum and the MNR about 200 mm. In both reserves the apparent sex ratios were skewed in favor of males (1:0.29 in the BGR and 1:0.1 in the MNR). The population was dispersed in a clumped manner which is ascribed to the formation of leks. Leks were positioned in open habitat while females invariably concealed themselves under cover.

    Conclusions 

    The leks formed the pivot of the mating system of the Red-crested Korhaan and are identifiable social structures that field ecologists can use to monitor population stability.

  • Three crane species, the Common Crane (Grus grus L.), the Demoiselle Crane (Anthropoides virgo L.) and the Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus Pallas), migrate through Pakistan to wintering grounds in the subcontinent (Johnsgard, 1983). The Common and Demoiselle Cranes breed in Russia, then migrate to Pakistan. They migrate south in the autumn via routes along Pakistan's northern and western borders. The Siberian Cranes are nearly extinct in this area with only a few birds passing through Pakistan along unknown routes to their sole wintering grounds in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, India (UNEP/CMS, 1995; BirdLife International, 2001). In northern Pakistan, cranes fly back over the Indus, Kurram, Gambela, Kashew and Gomal Zam rivers. In Baluchistan, cranes fly back over the Zhob River through Chaghi and Noshki (Farooq et al., 1993; Khan, 2004). Six main populations of the Demoiselle Crane are recognized here. The three eastern populations in East Asia, Kazakhstan/Central Asia and Kalmykia are abundant, ranging from 100 to 1000. The Black Sea population consists of approximately 500 birds. A disjunctive resident population in the Atlas Plateau of north Africa is believed to include no more than 50 individuals. A small breeding population exists in Turkey (Smirenski, 2000; Meine and Archibald, 2004). This species breeds in Eurasia and the steppes from the Black Sea to northeastern China. The main wintering grounds are India, Sudan and other portions of East Africa to Chad (International Crane Foundation, 2001; Meine and Archibald, 2004). Demoiselle Cranes are primarily grassland birds, but are usually found within a few hundred meters of rivers and other natural wetlands. If water is available, they will inhabit even semi-deserts and true deserts. Their winter habitats in East-Central Africa include acacia savannahs, grasslands and riparian areas. In India, they feed in agricultural fields and roost on sandbars and mudflats surrounded by water (Ahmad and Khurshid, 1991; Meine and Archibald, 2004). Common and Demoiselle Cranes migrate south in search of food and favorable environments and north for nesting and breeding. During this migration through Pakistan, they come across heavy odds of physical barriers, inclement weather, predators, food scarcity and hunting pressures (Khan, 1990; Shafiq, 1998).

    During the migration seasons intensive hunting of cranes is carried out throughout northern Pakistan especially in the southern districts, where some cranes are killed while a reasonable number is caught alive. Those are kept and reared with great interest and care. Every effort is made for the safety and breeding of these cranes, but due to the lack of proper organized and scientific techniques, the desired results are seldom obtained (Shafiq, 1998; DeCarlo, 2004). The objectives of our research were to determine the distribution, population status and the pressure from hunting on cranes in the southern districts of northern Pakistan, identify possible threats to their population and suggest recommendations for their conservation.

    The research was conducted in Bannu and Lakki, the southern districts of northern Pakistan and FATA (Federally Administered Tribal Areas) of Kurram and NWA (North Waziristan Agencies), located in one of the most beautiful valleys, the Kurram Valley. This valley is reached from the Darra Tang, northwest to the confluence of the Kurram and Indus rivers in Lakki. Part of the watershed of the Kurram Valley extends beyond the international border into Afghanistan. The watershed is defined by the Kurram River and its tributaries which include the Kashu and Gambilla rivers, and consists of arid, semi-arid plains and foothills, ranging from 300–4761 m in elevation.The river runs for about 25 km to the Tangi and Kethu rivers, and then enters Bannu and Lakki. Finally, the Kurram River flows into the Indus River at Dara Tang near Isa Khel (Robert and Landfried, 1987; Khan, 2004).

    Two crane species, the Common and Demoiselle Crane migrate through Pakistan. To capture wild cranes, hunters of the Kurram Valley use captive cranes as decoy to attract wild cranes by their presence and calls. The hunters train their captive cranes in such a way that they call in response to a signal from the owners (Farooq, 1992; Ahmad and Jan, 1995).

    The survey was conducted during the fall of 2008 and the 2009 spring in the Kurram Valley of northern Pakistan, the most important hunting areas of cranes, which include Bannu, Lakki and FATA of Kurram and NWA. The data were collected in the fall of 2008, from September 1 to November 30 and in the spring of 2009, starting on February 25 and lasting to April 15. Field surveys, interviews and questionnaires were the tools for data collection.

    From the data collected, we calculated means and standard deviations using the following equations:

    M=X/n

    where X is the total number of cranes per hunting site (captured or killed), n the number of hunting sites and M the mean number of cranes;

    SD=X2/n(X/n)2

    where SD is the standard deviation.

    During the fall of 2008, a total of 165 hunting camps were established, 95 in Bannu (25 at the Baran Dam, 30 at the Kurram River, 20 at Kashu, 13 at Kethu and 7 at the Dowa hunting sites) and 70 in Lakki (45 at the Gambilla River, 14 at Lunder and 11 at the Chall hunting sites). An average of 19 ± 8 camps with 190 ± 82 hunters were at each hunting sites in Bannu and 23 ± 15 camps with 233 ± 154 hunters at each hunting site in Lakki (Fig. 1). During the spring of 2009, a total of 85 camps were established, 50 in Bannu (13 at the Baran Dam, 11 at the Kurram River, 10 at Kashu, 9 at Kethu and 7 at Dowa) and 35 in Lakki (17 at the Gambilla River, 10 at Lunder and 8 at Chall). An average of 10 ± 2 camps with 100 ± 2 hunters were in Bannu and 12 ± 4 camps with 117 ±39 hunters in Lakki (Fig. 1).

    Figure  1.  Mean number of camps and hunters during fall 2008 and spring 2009 in Bannu and Lakki. Data were analyzed by t-test at p < 0.05; two populations were not significantly different.

    During the fall of 2008, a total of 665 Demoiselle and 190 Common Cranes were captured in Bannu. The maximum and minimum number of Demoiselle and Common Cranes were captured in the Baran Dam and Dowa, compared to other hunting sites in Bannu. During the fall of 2008, 190 Demoiselle and 45 Common Cranes were killed in Bannu. The maximum and minimum number of Demoiselle and Common Cranes were killed in the Baran Dam and Dowa compared to other hunting sites in Bannu (Table 1). During the spring of 2009, a total 250 Demoiselle and 100 Common Cranes were captured in Bannu. The most and fewest number of Demoiselle and Common Cranes were captured in the Baran Dam and Dowa compared to other hunting sites in Bannu. During the spring of 2009, a total 99 Demoiselle cranes were killed in Bannu, with most at the Baran Dam and the smallest number in Dowa. However, no Common Crane was killed in any of the Bannu hunting areas (Table 1). The average number of captured cranes per camp in the fall of 2008 was nine, of which seven were Demoiselle and two were Common Cranes, while in the spring of 2009 seven were captured, of which five were Demoiselle and two Common Cranes.

    Table  1.  Number of the cranes captured and killed during fall 2008 and spring 2009 in Bannu
    Hunting season Captured /killed Species of crane Number of cranes
    Total in Bannu Baran Dam Kurram River Kashu Kethu Dowa
    Fall 2008 Captured Demoiselle 665 250 190 105 85 35
    Common 190 70 45 36 24 15
    Killed Demoiselle 190 90 50 25 15 10
    Common 45 23 8 9 3 2
    Spring 2009 Captured Demoiselle 250 95 75 45 20 15
    Common 100 50 20 15 10 5
    Killed Demoiselle 99 32 45 10 7 5
    Common 0 0 0 0 0 0
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    During the fall of 2008, a total of 490 Demoiselle and 140 Common Cranes were captured in Lakki. In the Gambilla River, the maximum number of Demoiselle and Common cranes were captured and the smallest number in Chall, compared to other hunting sites in Lakki. During the fall of 2008, 150 Demoiselle and only 5 Common Cranes were killed in Lakki. Also in the Gambilla River, the largest number of Demoiselle Cranes were killed and in Chall the fewest, compared to other hunting sites in Lakki (Table 2). The average number of captured cranes per camp in the fall of 2008 was nine, of which seven were Demoiselle and two Common Cranes. In the spring of 2009, a total 175 Demoiselle and 70 Common Cranes were captured in Lakki. In the Gambilla River, the largest number of Demoiselle Cranes were captured, compared to other hunting sites but no Common Crane in Chall. In the spring of 2009, 70 Demoiselle Cranes were killed in Lakki, while no Common Crane was killed in any of the Lakki hunting sites. In the Gambilla River, the maximum number of Demoiselle Cranes were killed; however, no Common Crane was killed in Chall, neither in the fall of 2008 and nor in the spring of 2009 (Table 2). The average number of captured cranes per camp in the 2009 spring was seven, five of them Demoiselle and two Common Cranes.

    Table  2.  Number of the cranes captured and killed during fall 2008 and spring 2009 in Lakki
    Hunting season Captured /killed Species of crane Number of cranes
    Total in Lakki Gambilla River Lunder Chall
    Fall 2008 Captured Demoiselle 490 350 85 55
    Common 140 90 30 20
    Killed Demoiselle 150 115 20 15
    Common 5 4 1 0
    Spring 2009 Captured Demoiselle 175 105 60 10
    Common 70 64 6 0
    Killed Demoiselle 70 32 23 15
    Common 0 0 0 0
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    During the fall of 2008, 175 Demoiselle and Common Cranes were captured in Bannu, 50 more compared with Lakki. Moreover, during the spring of 2009, 75 Demoiselle and Common Cranes were captured in Bannu, 30 more than in Lakki. Furthermore, during the 2008 fall, 50 Demoiselle and Common Cranes were killed in Bannu, 40 more than in Lakki (Tables 1 and 2).

    During our various interviews with hunters during the present survey, we recorded average numbers of cranes captured and killed during the last five-years (2004–2008). Of the Demoiselle Cranes 900 ± 460 were captured and 245 ± 209 killed, compared with the Common Cranes of which 245 ± 209 were captured and 150 ± 66 killed in Bannu. However, in Lakki, the average number of the Demoiselle Cranes captured was 900 ± 568 and 375 ± 121 were killed, compared with the Common Cranes of which 225 ±153 were captured and 150 ± 60 killed. It appeared that a total of 120 camps were established in both districts during the last five-years.

    During our survey, 950 hunters were interviewed in Bannu and 700 in Lakki to determine the purpose of hunting. It was found that most people hunted for recreation, only few people hunted both for recreation and earning. However, nobody hunted for only earning. Among the hunters 92% from Bannu and 83% from Lakki were in possession of wildlife permits for hunting. All of the hunters (100%) were in favor of the proposition that no one should be allowed to shoot cranes. The population of two crane species is expected to decline due to overhunting, destruction of their natural habitats, anthropogenic activities and varying geographical factors.

    Exact routes used by cranes for entering and leaving Pakistan are not clearly known. During our recent research, it was noted from various hunters that during the fall migratory cranes enter through rout via Zhob from Afghanistan. From Zhob they enter Bannu and Lakki, while in the spring they pass through Lakki and Bannu. From here they enter Afghanistan through Parachinar. The majority of cranes are seen on the Indus, Kurram, Kashu, Zhob and Gambilla rivers (Farooq et al., 1993). It was recently discovered that a popular entry route of cranes lies in the district Chagai, Baluchistan.

    In 1966, 5000 cranes were reported to have either been trapped alive or shot. Interviews with 100 hunters in D.I. Khan and Bannu areas indicated that they were able to kill or catch 10–15% of the migrating cranes. According to game staff and local villagers in the Chagai district, about 20000 cranes enter each year through Zaro-Anam Bostan in Baluchistan in the fall and move eastwards. In the spring of 1989, about 700 cranes used this route. From this, it was concluded that the total number of cranes using Pakistan for migration could be around 50000 (Farooq et al., 1993). According to our survey, in the fall of 2008 and the spring of 2009, about 7000 cranes passed through Bannu and Lakki, which means that it is still a favorite route for the migration of cranes.

    According to Kanai (2000) the hunters of the Kurram Valley trapped 4000 cranes and 100 were killed during the 1986 fall and the spring of 1987. About 3000 to 5000 cranes were captured in 1995 (Ahmad and Jan, 1995). According to our research, a total of 885 Demoiselle and 215 Common Cranes were reported to be killed during the fall of 2008 and the spring of 2009 (Table 2).

    During the 2008 fall and 2009 spring, a total of 2080 cranes were captured and 559 were killed. Of the 2080 captured cranes, 1580 were Demoiselle Cranes and 500 were Common Cranes while 509 Demoiselle and 50 Common Cranes were killed. The total captured per camp was about eight cranes and the number killed per camp about two (Tables 1 and 2). Hunting of Common and Demoiselle Cranes is incidental and takes place mostly on rainy days or in bad weather (Khan, 1998).

    According to Khan (2004), 1502 licenses had been issued in Bannu and Lakki by the D.I. Khan Wildlife Department. In Pakistan, the total number of registered cranes was 12222, up from the year earlier. During our research, in Bannu and Lakki, out of a total of 1650 hunters in 165 camps, 1444 had wildlife permits. Recently, hunters from Bannu have started to use politicians to obtain crane-hunting permits in Zhob. The ban on outside hunters could easily save about 500 cranes each year and may guarantee the safe journey of wild cranes (Farooq et al., 1993).

    Figure  2.  Number of cranes captured and killed during the last five years (2004–2008) in Bannu and Lakki. Data were analyzed by t-test at p < 0.05; vertical bars indicate SD; two populations were not significantly different.

    From our investigation, we conclude that the population of migratory cranes is expected to decline in southern districts of northern Pakistan due to overhunting, destruction of natural habitats and high levels of anthropogenic activities. There are no effective protection measures for these cranes.

    However, for their protection, the Government of Northern Pakistan took the following steps: 1) the endangered Siberian Crane, which is suspected to travel through northern Pakistan during migration, has been declared "protected" and hunting, killing and capturing of the bird have been completely banned; 2) hunting, killing or capture of cranes by means of fire arms or any other device has been prohibited; 3) Dealing in crane hunting, trade or business is now illegal; 4) hunting is allowed only in the spring and fall; the fee for spring hunting per camp is Rs. 1000 and Rs. 500 for the fall; 5) the fee for possessing a license is Rs. 50 per crane to discourage possession of cranes as pets; 6) a fee of Rs. 500 to prohibit the export of cranes from the province in the country is charged and Rs. 2000 per crane for outside the country; 7) to discourage crane hunting by the young people, hunting licenses are issued only to persons over 18 years of age.

    In order to protect and restore the endangered crane population and its habitats, the following specific suggestions for protection at the local level must be taken: 1) the rules regarding hunting of cranes in northern Pakistan need to be revised and oriented more towards protection; 2) improve the techniques of breeding populations; 3) study the factors behind poor reproduction and rates of recruitment in crane populations with an effective reintroduction of cranes; 4) expand cooperation and collaboration among ornithologists, conservationists and those working in the breeding range of crane populations; 5) take eco-tourism measures and extend public education programs involving farmers; 6) habitats should be protected from agro-industrial chemical pollution.

    We thank Prof. Dr. Muhammad Arshad (Deceased), Mr. Khan Malook (DFO, Wildlife Department, Bannu), Mr. Abdul Haleem (DFO, Wildlife Department, D.I. Khan) and Dr. Lutf Ullah Kakakhel (Vice Chancellor) for providing all possible information and cooperation during our research. We are grateful to many volunteers and hunters who contributed to our survey.

  • Allan DG (2005a) Northern Black Korhaan. In: Hockey PAR, Dean WJR, Ryan PG (eds) Roberts Birds of Southern Africa, 7th edn. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, pp 298–300
    Allan DG (2005b) Karoo Korhaan. In: Hockey PAR, Dean WJR, Ryan PG (eds) Roberts Birds of Southern Africa, 7th edn. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, pp 301–302
    Allan DG (2005c) Blue Korhaan. In: Hockey PAR, Dean WJR, Ryan PG (eds) Roberts Birds of Southern Africa, 7th edn. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, pp 302–304
    Allan DG (2005d) Ludwig's Bustard. In: Hockey PAR, Dean WJR, Ryan PG (eds) Roberts Birds of Southern Africa, 7th edn. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, pp 293–294
    Allan DG (2005e) Red-crested Korhaan. In: Hockey PAR, Dean WJR, Ryan PG (eds) Roberts Birds of Southern Africa, 7th edn. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, pp 296–297
    Allan DG (2005f) Kori Bustard. In: Hockey PAR, Dean WJR, Ryan PG (eds) Roberts Birds of Southern Africa, 7th edn. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, pp 295–296
    Allan DG, Anderson MD (2010) Assessment of the Threats Faced by South Africa's Bustard Species. Bustard Working Group, BirdLife South Africa
    Bradbury TW (1981) The evolution of leks. In: Alexander RD, Tinkle DW (eds) Natural Selection and Social Behaviour. Chiron Press, New York and Concord, pp 138–169
    Broders O, Osborne T, Wink M (2003) A mtDNA phylogeney of bustards (family Otididae) based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b-gene. J Ornithol 144:176–185
    Catchpole CK, Slater JB (2008) Bird Song: Biological Themes and Variation. Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom
    Chase JM, Peter A, Abrams PA, Grover JP, Diehl PS, Robert C, Shane H, Richards DA, Nisbet RM, Case TJ (2002) The interaction between predation and competition: a review and synthesis. Ecol Let 5:302–315
    Chittenden H, Allan D, Weiersbye I (2012) Roberts Geographic Variation of Southern African Birds. John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town
    Constantine M (2013) The Sound Approach to Birding. The Sound Approach, Dorset
    Daniel JC, Blumstein DT (1998) A test of the acoustic adaptation hypothesis in four species of marmot. Anim Behav 56:1517–1528
    Green RE (2004) Breeding Biology. In: Sutherland WJ, Newton I, Green RE (eds) Bird Ecology and Conservation. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 57–83
    Hasselquist D (1994) Male Attractiveness, Mating Tactics and Realized Fitness in the Polygynous Great Reed Wabler, Thesis. Lund University, Lund, Sweden
    Hasselquist D, Sherman PW (2001) Social mating systems and extrapair fertilization in passerine birds. Behav Ecol 12:457–466
    Hitchcock RK, Yellen JE, Geldburd DJ, Osborn AJ, Crowell AL (1996) Subsistence hunting and resource management among the JU/HOASI of Northwestern Botswana. Afr Stud Monogr 17:153–220
    Hockey PAR, Dean WJR, Ryan PG (eds) (2005) Roberts Birds of Southern Africa, 7th edn. The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town
    Hӧgland J, Alatalo RV (1995) Leks. Princeton University Press, Princeton
    Kemp A, Tarboton W (1976) Small South Africa bustards. Bokmakierie 28:40–43
    Khan WA, Mian A (2013) Population biology of Black Francolin (Francolinus francolinus) with reference to Lal Suhanra National Park, Pakistan. Pak J Zool 45:183–191
    Morales MB, Jiquet F, Arroyo B (2001) Exploded leks: what Bustards can teach us. Ardeola 48:85–98
    Mucina L, Rutherford MC (eds) (2006) The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria
    Newton I (1998) Population Limitations in Birds. Academic, Amsterdam
    Odum EP (1971) Fundamentals of Ecology, 3rd edn. WB Saunders, Philadelphia
    Orians GH (1969) Age and hunting success in the Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidenralis). Anim Behav 55:107–121
    Pulliam HR (1973) On the advantages of flocking. J Theoret Biol 38:419–422
    Sutherland WJ, Newton I, Green RE (2004) Bird Ecology and Conservation. Oxford University Press, New York
    Tarboton WR, Kemp MI, Kemp AC (1987) Birds of the Transvaal. Transvaal Museum, Pretoria
    van Niekerk JH (2014) Vocal behaviour of the red-crested Korhaan Lophotis ruficrista in South Africa. S Afr J Wildl Manage 44:24–31
    Whitehead H (2008) Analyzing Animal Societies; Quantitative Methods for Vertebrate Social Analysis. University of Chicargo Press, London
  • Related Articles

Catalog

    Figures(2)  /  Tables(1)

    Article Metrics

    Article views (216) PDF downloads (26) Cited by()

    /

    DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
    Return
    Return