In mutualistic interactions, all parties are usually considered to benefit; yet there may be asymmetries in mutualisms where some partners/individuals benefit more than others. Such is thought to be the case in mixed-species flocks of birds, where following species are thought to benefit more than leading species, and leading species may not be able to escape the association if they are subordinate to other species. We measured dominance and affiliation patterns of a mixed-species flock system of southern China in an aviary where these variables could be measured in a standardized way. In eight wild-caught flocks, the leading species, David's Fulvetta (Alcippe davidi), was usually among the more subordinate flock members (ranking 9 of 13 species, with the the most dominant species ranked number one, and dominance measured by normalized David's scores). Dominance was strongly influenced by body mass, and not by bill length or the number of individuals. Female fulvettas in particular tended to be among the most subordinate individuals in the flock. There was evidence of a negative relationship between a species pair's affiliation, measured as the percentage of all observations in which these two species were found perching together, and their difference in ranking in the dominance hierarchy, particularly when some ground species, which are not likely to remain in flocks long term, were removed from the analysis. Species pairs that had more pronounced differences in their dominance rankings were less likely to be affiliated, which is consistent with the idea that subordinate species may avoid dominants. David's Fulvetta is a strong information provider, so other species are likely benefitted in this relationship. Our data suggest one reason that fulvettas stay in flocks is that they may be subordinate and therefore have little control over who associates with them.
There are about 300 species of Galliformes in the world of which 25% are threatened with extinction (IUCN, 2011). About 20% of the global Galliformes have been recorded in China, which is home to more pheasant and threatened pheasant species than any other country (Fuller and Garson, 2000) and thus ensuring the survival of species there is a global priority.
The habitat of most Chinese pheasants consists of forest and shrub of various types (Cheng, 1978), which have suffered substantially throughout many parts of the country because of degradation and deforestation. Although much conservation attention on this group of birds has, understandably, concentrated on the species that are found on the IUCN Red List (Fuller and Garson, 2000; BirdLife International, 2001; IUCN, 2011), the loss and degradation of forested habitats is likely to have resulted in the fragmentation of populations of many non-threatened species as well. Some species in non-forest habitats are also likely to have suffered habitat loss because of increasing human activities, such as livestock grazing. Some pheasant populations in habitats close to farmland are also thought to have declined because of increased use of pesticides in areas where they forage (Zhang et al., 2003). Hunting is another significant reason for the decline in pheasant populations (Zheng and Wang, 1998). They have been hunted, along with other wildlife species, in most areas of China because of their big size and colorful feathers.
Within China there are several regions that are especially important for threatened pheasants, concentrated in south-west and central China (Ding and Zheng, 2000). These include the Tibetan plateau and the adjacent Hengduan mountains, which contain major portions of the geographical range of several threatened species (Ding and Zheng, 2000). In the western part of this region, on the high plateau, the human population is predominantly Tibetan. They practise Buddhism and, therefore, do not kill birds, fish or mammals, apart from livestock; killing and eating animals is a sin in their culture (Sang, 2003). In some areas, even eating eggs is not allowed in local cultural traditions (Nan, 2001). Furthermore, many Tibetans feed the wildlife that occurs around their habitation and prohibit hunting activities (Sang, 2003). The consequence is that the wildlife is deliberately conserved through these beliefs and traditions. In the area around some monasteries and in other areas where local culture is strong, even logging may be forbidden so that forests, as well as the wild animals, are well conserved (Nan, 2001). Numerous areas within this landscape are considered "sacred" by the indigenous Tibetans and Hindoos of this region, who interact with these sites in ways potentially beneficial to conservation (Alemmeren et al., 2003; Ashalata et al., 2005; Jan et al., 2007). The sacred sites are found in habitats with greater species richness, diversity and endemism than randomly selected non-sacred sites (Sang et al., 2003; Danica et al., 2005; Jan et al., 2007). However, times are changing and increasing access to many previously remote areas has opened up new opportunities for travel and business. In western Sichuan (and other areas in this part of China), this appears to be producing two new types of pressure. As with many developing sites in China, the increased wealth in urban areas and access to overseas markets is affecting rural traditions. First, improved access to these high elevation areas allows greater access to their natural resources and in China, as well as other parts of eastern Asia, medicinal and other health-promoting products are especially sought after. Second, increasing disposable income in towns and cities is leading to much greater domestic tourism to many destinations that were previously rarely visited by outsiders.
Against this background of ever declining habitat and pheasant populations and new and increasing pressures, a better understanding of the relationship between pheasants, forests and the impact of local traditions may offer insights into their long-term survival prospects. As such, it may suggest ways of conserving pheasants and other wildlife and their habitats without formal legal protection, if this information is gathered and acted upon quickly. The aim of this study was, therefore, to provide background information on the current status of pheasants in a part of Ganzi Prefecture, western Sichuan by: a) surveying forests, including those that are protected by local people, to determine the presence of pheasants; b) assessing the protection status of the forests and describing pressures on the pheasants and their habitats and c) identifying changes in the traditional way of life of the local population.
Methods
Study area
Fieldwork was carried out in Daocheng County, Ganzi Prefecture, which lies in the high plateau of western Sichuan Province, southwestern China. Given the dramatic topography, solar radiation varies substantially according to aspect and slope of mountainsides. These features, together with elevation, also determine the vegetation present. The sites surveyed were between 3100–5100 m in elevation. Between 3100–3700 m, the forest is dominated by alpine pine (Pinus densata) on both north-facing and south-facing slopes. At elevations between 3700–4300 m, the forests are dominated by hollyleaf-like oak (Quercus aquifolioides) on south-facing slopes and rhododendron (Rhododendron fastigiatum), Balfour spruce (Picea likiangensis) and Chinese larch (Larix potaninii) on north-facing slopes. Above 4300 m, the area is dominated by meadows, subalpine shrubs and scree. Since the rural population in Daocheng County has traditionally cut trees for their own needs and then allowed regeneration, the forests are of different secondary successional stages. In some cases, the topography resulted in poor forest regeneration and so now there is grassland below the tree-line, whereas naturally it would only occur in alpine areas. There are some untouched primary areas far away from human habitation, which have long been just too remote to suffer human impact.
In 2002, there were 5656 families and 28413 people living in Daocheng County, of which 93.81% are ethnic Tibetans (Daocheng County Government, 2004). The income of Tibetan families arises mainly from stock-rearing, producing milk and collecting Chinese caterpillar fungi (Cordyceps sinensis) and other mushrooms. In recent years, some have started to earn money from manual labor, such as building roads and through starting their own businesses, but their proportion is very low. Now, Daocheng is becoming well known throughout China because of an increasingly popular tourist destination, Yading, in the south of the county. This is a Buddhist pilgrimage site (Rock, 1931) that has now become a recreation park and is also a national nature reserve. Each year, more and more tourists are attracted to Daocheng when visiting Yading.
Field survey method
Determining pheasant presence
Thirteen sites were surveyed in Daocheng County between January 2003 and June 2004 (Table 1; Fig. 1). These sites were selected as reportedly suitable for pheasants and some of them benefited from various forms of traditional protection. Taken together, the suite of sites was designed to allow description of all levels of protection afforded to forests that still contained pheasants. Five of them were forest sites close to monasteries and of these, three were actively protected by monks (Zhujie, Zhalang and Xiongdeng), one was considered by local people to be sacred and hence also little disturbed (Chonggu, which is in Yading) and one, not considered special, was not afforded any cultural protection (Benbo). A further three were considered by local people to be sacred and so disturbance was minimal (Suochong, Sangdui and a site east of Daocheng). Four other forests did not benefit from any special cultural consideration (Shengmu, Xiepo, Julong and Gewa) and neither did the final site (Wumingshan), a subalpine meadow-shrub site.
Table
1.
Dates of survey at each site in Daocheng County, Ganzi Prefecture, Sichuan Province, southwestern China
Site No. a
Site name
Survey period
1
Zhujie Monastery
Jan.–Mar. 2003
2
Suochong
Jan.–Mar. 2003
3
Zhalang Monastery
Nov.–Dec. 2003
4
Xiongdeng Monastery
Nov.–Dec. 2003
5
Benbo Monastery
Nov.–Dec. 2003
6
Chonggu Monastery
Jun. 2004
7
Sangdui
Nov.–Dec. 2003
8 (N)
Shengmu (N)
Nov.–Dec. 2003
8 (S)
Shengmu (S)
Nov.–Dec. 2003
9
East of Daocheng City
Nov.–Dec. 2003
10
Xiepo
Nov.–Dec. 2003
11 (N)
Julong (N)
Nov.–Dec. 2003
11(S)
Julong (S)
Nov.–Dec. 2003
12
Gewa
Nov.–Dec. 2003
13
Wumingshan
Jun. 2004
a N: north-facing mountain; S: south-facing mountain. This also applies to Tables 2 and 3.
Two sites were surveyed in the summer and the others in winter (Table 1). Transect length varied according to the size of the habitat patch and as well as with accessibility. During both seasons surveys were carried out each day along existing forest trails and by walking through the habitat between 08:00 and 19:00 hours. The trails that were walked were small forest paths and so had not altered the habitat significantly. When walking along each trail, all calls, sightings, dropped feathers, recognizable droppings or evidence of kill were recorded.
Gathering information on local livelihoods and recent changes
A total of 12 months was spent living in Daocheng during the 18 months of the study, based at Zhujie Monastery (Wang, 2005) and living with local people. This afforded the opportunity to learn in detail about their traditions, sources and level of income and how these changed. In addition, information was gathered on changes in lifestyles, the pressures on pheasant species and their habitats and their protection. Additional information was gathered during the field surveys when interviews with people working in their fields and direct observations gave further insight into pressures on pheasants and other wildlife, their habitat and the protection accorded them.
Current and potential impacts of tourism were briefly assessed by direct observation and by interviewing tourists, local people and local government officials. About 200 local people, 80 tourists and 20 officials of the Daocheng Forestry Bureau and the Daocheng government were interviewed. The information of local traditions on wildlife conservation, sources and level of income, changes in lifestyles and pressures on pheasants, as well as the attitudes of tourists on local culture and wildlife, were selected for a brief assessment.
Results
Pheasant species present
Eight species of pheasant and partridge were recorded: the white eared-pheasant (Crossoptilon crossoptilon), the blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), the buff-throated partridge (Tetraophasis szechenyii), the koklass (Pucrasia macrolopha), the Tibetan snowcock (Tetraogallus tibetanus), the Tibetan partridge (Perdix hodgsoniae), the Chinese grouse (Tetrastes sewerzowi) and the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). All eight were recorded during line transect surveys (Table 2). The seventh, the Chinese Grouse, was recorded in Suochong outside the transect area. The white eared-pheasant and blood pheasant were found at 11 sites in oak and conifer forests above 3500 m, with the white eared-pheasant recorded most frequently. The buff-throated partridge, the Tibetan partridge and the Chinese grouse appeared in the forest at an elevation of 3700 m, i.e., above the pine forest. The koklass and common pheasant were only observed in the pine forest close to cultivation below 3700 m. The Tibetan snowcock was only heard at about 5000 m in the subalpine shrub-meadow site. Of note were about 500 white eared-pheasants recorded on farmland, adjacent to forests in Suochong and about 80 observed in similar situations at Shengmu. Groups of blood pheasants were also seen in farmland at Suochong. Local people reported up to 1000 white eared-pheasants in the farmland of Xiepo, although such large groups were not recorded during our transect surveys.
Table
2.
Rates of encounter of pheasants at each site (number of birds per km).
Species
Detection method
Site No. a
1 (39.1 km)
2 (36.4 km)
3 (8.4 km)
4 (3.8 km)
5 (9.7 km)
6 (13.6 km)
7 (3.2 km)
8 (N) (16.2 km)
8 (S) (6.9 km)
9 (6.4 km)
10 (4.3 km)
11 (N) (21.8 km)
11 (S) (19.1 km)
12 (22.5 km)
13 (7.9 km)
White Eared-pheasant
Sightings
5.06
3.90
5.34
8.14
0.59
20.94
7.65
0.43
1.88
0.23
8
Feathers
40.10
3.92
5.11
3.61
2.90
0.87
1.41
0.70
0.37
20
Calls
0.37
0.94
0.47
0.05
0.05
0.04
Kills
0.14
0.16
Blood Pheasant
Sightings
2.17
1.59
1.55
6.88
0.49
0.31
3.33
Feathers
0.10
0.07
0.37
Kills
0.10
0.06
Calls
0.29
0.05
Droppings
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Buff-throated Partridge
Sightings
0.29
1.45
0.50
0.13
Feathers
0.31
0.07
0.72
0.09
Calls
0.07
0.06
Kills
0.03
0.05
Koklass
Sightings
0.09
0.04
Common Pheasant
Sightings
0.21
0.18
Tibet Snowcock
Calls
0.13
Tibet Partridge
Sightings
0.26
0.05
1.43
0.53
0.43
a Below the site number is the transect length at each site, placed in brackets. √: appeared.
In Daocheng County, the conservation of wildlife is mainly focused on the White Eared-pheasant because of its special place in Buddhism. This special affinity is because the bird is large and showy and also because it is white, which has a special meaning for Buddhists. It symbolizes life and is witnessed in the snow-capped mountains, glaciers, clouds, sheep, milk, butter and elsewhere, all of which are seen as good things. In addition, after an avalanche, Tibetans especially worship white. In other words, the essence of nature is seen in white, a color symbolizing righteousness, goodness, nobility and holiness (Xiama, 2002).
Some of the sites surveyed are considered sacred forests and are protected by monasteries or through local culture of a nearby village (Table 3). In these areas, pheasants lived in the forest without disturbance. Local people believe that killing the White Eared-pheasant is a sin and that the bird may bring them good luck. The local people at all sites visited, where these birds are found, gave them food and prohibited all hunting activity (i.e., including other pheasants and other wildlife). Although some tree stumps were seen in Benbo and Sangdui, in the sacred forests (Zhujie, Zhalang, Xiongdeng, Benbo, Chonggu, Sangdui and east of Daocheng City), all close to villages and monasteries, logging was prohibited, which provided the pheasants with undisturbed habitats. Compared to the White Eared-pheasant, the local people paid little attention to other pheasant species, which also meant that there was no negative effect.
Table
3.
Habitat type, pheasant species and types of pressure on pheasants at each site
Site No.
Name of area
Type of forest
Size (km2)
Elevation range (m)
Source of protection
Pheasant species recorded
Pressure
1
Zhujie Monastery
Oak and shrub
10
3900–4400
Monastery
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant, buff-throated partridge, Tibetan partridge
Disturbance of nesting females by pigs, logging in adjacent non-conserved oak shrub
2
Suochong
Spruce, larch, rhododendron
5
3850–4400
Local culture
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant, buff-throated partridge, Tibetan partridge, Chinese grouse
Disturbance of nesting females by Chinese caterpillar fungus collectors, logging
3
Zhalang Monastery
Larch forest
1
3900–4400
Monastery
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant, Tibetan partridge
None
4
Xiongdeng Monastery
Oak shrub
2
4000–4400
Monastery
Tibetan partridge
None
5
Benbo Monastery
Oak, spruce forest
> 20 (continuous forest)
4100–4400
Monastery
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant, buff-throated partridge
Disturbance of nesting females by pigs
6
Chonggu Monastery
Virgin spruce, oak forest
> 20 (continuous forest)
3900–4400
Local culture
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant, buff-throated partridge
Tourism
7
Sangdui
Oak forest
> 20 (continuous forest)
4100–4400
Local culture
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant
None
8 (N)
Shengmu (N)
Spruce, larch forest
> 20 (continuous forest)
3700–4400
None
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant, buff-throated partridge
Disturbance of nesting females by Chinese caterpillar fungus collectors, logging
8 (S)
Shengmu (S)
Oak and shrub
1
3800–4400
None
White eared-pheasant, buff-throated partridge, Tibetan partridge
Disturbance of pheasant habitat by logging
9
East of Daocheng City
Larch
3
3800–4400
Local culture
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant
Disturbance of nesting females by Chinese caterpillar fungus collectors
10
Xiepo
Virgin spruce
> 20 (continuous forest)
3700–4300
None
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant
Disturbance of nesting females by Chinese caterpillar fungus collectors, logging
11 (N)
Julong (N)
Pine, spruce, larch, rhododendron, oak
> 20 (continuous forest)
3100–4200
None
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant, buff-throated partridge, koklass
Disturbance of pheasant habitat by logging and forest fires
11 (S)
Julong (S)
Pine and oak
> 20 (continuous forest)
3100–3700
None
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant, Common pheasant
Disturbance of pheasant habitat by logging and forest fires
12
Gewa
Oak and spruce
> 20 (continuous forest)
3500–4400
None
White eared-pheasant, blood pheasant, buff-throated partridge, koklass, Common pheasant
Disturbance of pheasant habitat by logging and forest fires
In Daocheng, the Tibetans do not use pesticide to increase production, considering that killing life, including pests and mice, is sinful. They allow White Eared-pheasant and other pheasants to forage on farmland except during the crop sowing period. As a result farmland near forests attracted large groups of White Eared-pheasant and Blood Pheasants.
Pressures on pheasants
The collection of plants and mushrooms for medicinal and culinary purposes has increased markedly over the last 10 years. There are two specialties from this area: the Chinese caterpillar fungus and mushrooms (Tricholoma matsutake). Both occur on the ground and hence the villagers search the forest floor for them.
The Chinese caterpillar fungus is one of the most valuable medicinal fungi in East Asia. It is well known as an important, nourishing tonic that has been used as a treatment for many ailments for hundreds of years. In China, it occurs in Sichuan, Qinghai, Tibet and Gansu provinces, where it is found between 3000–5100 m elevation (Guo et al., 2003). It is composed of a parasitic fungus and its host, the larva of Hepialus armoricanus. It develops by parasitizing caterpillars, kills the caterpillars in the autumn and then forms hypha that mature outside the caterpillar the following spring (Guo et al., 2003).
The Chinese caterpillar fungus is collected by local people from late April to the beginning of June, i.e., the period when female White Eared-pheasants are nesting. By this time, the villagers had sown their crops and so some members of each family had free time to collect the fungus. They say that they spend entire days collecting the fungus or even several days at a stretch, staying overnight in the forest. Collection is concentrated in conifer forests, shrubs and meadows between 3700–4800 m and results in nests of pheasants being disturbed. When nests are found, the females leave them and although the people do not collect the eggs, nest predators such as crows are attracted to the nest by the people moving about.
Mushroom collection takes place in oak forests from July when chicks of White Eared-pheasant are present. As with the collection of the Chinese caterpillar fungus, members of each family spend a long time searching the forest floor for mushrooms. It appears to affect brood rearing of pheasants much less than the collection of Chinese caterpillar fungus affects nesting. When villagers encounter pheasants they try to avoid disturbing them.
Although some forests close to monasteries and villages in Daocheng County are well conserved because of religious sentiment, tree-felling does take place in large areas of forests that are not protected by any such sentiment. The felled trees are used for house building, decorating rooms, heating and cooking. The size and level of decoration of houses is increasing as more families become wealthy because of the sale of caterpillar fungi and other mushrooms.
Previously, logging of the oak forest for charcoal was a serious issue. Now, this activity has ceased because of legislation by the local government. Logging for fuelwood now occurs mainly in shrubs and forests close to villages and pastures, not protected by cultural traditions. Trees are used for house building and are mostly from forests with relatively big trees and which are far removed from areas under management by the local government. The trees selected for house building and interior decoration are spruce and larch. Loggers always make a fire to warm themselves in the forest and cook on it in the wild; villagers report that this has resulted in many forest fires during the last 50 years.
In Daocheng, livestock, such as sheep, yak and pigs, browse in all available forests, which is permitted, even in forests that are protected by local traditions. The livestock also grazes in shrub patches and grassland below 5000 m. When the yak move around they soften the soil, which attracts pheasants to feed at the forest edge near pastures during the winter when the livestock has been removed. However, livestock, mostly pigs, also may cause the destruction of nests of the White Eared-pheasant. In addition, there may be significant disturbance to the pheasants by livestock which occupy all of their habitats at some time or other during the year. When grazing their animals far away from the villages, the local people make fires for warmth and cooking. Occasionally this leads to forest fires.
The Chonggu Monastery lies in one of the most important cultural areas of Daocheng, i.e., Yading and contains a large area of virgin forests. This has been designated a forest park seven years ago. The Chonggu Monastery reportedly attracted White Eared-pheasants in previous years, but now they are only found far from paths. More than 50000 tourists visit the park and monastery each year.
Changing local livelihood
With the development of the economy in Daocheng County, traditional land use is changing (Table 4). Previously, the income of each family was derived mainly from yak herding and particularly the sale of milk products and, to a lesser extent, some animals. The income was low and so most local people lived in houses that were more than 40 years old. Few families had large houses. In the past 10 years or so, the income of the local population has increased mainly through the collection of the Chinese caterpillar fungus and mushrooms and from undertaking manual work in developed areas. At the same time, logging for timber to build new houses and for fuel wood has increased considerably.
Table
4.
Changes of local land-use of each site since the 1990s
Site code
Site name
Traditional land-use
Changes in the use of land
1
Zhujie Monastery
Protected land, some livestock grazing,
Tourism, mushroom collection
2
Suochong
Some livestock grazing,
Increased logging for house building, Chinese caterpillar fungus collection
3
Zhalang Monastery
Protected land
Tourism
4
Xiongdeng Monastery
Protected land, some livestock grazing,
Tourism
5
Benbo Monastery
Some livestock grazing,
Tourism, increased logging for house building, mushroom collection
6
Chonggu Monastery
Protected land
Tourism, Chinese caterpillar fungus/mushroom collection
7
Sangdui
Protected land
Mushroom collection
8 (N)
Shengmu (N)
Some livestock grazing
Increased logging for house building Chinese caterpillar fungus collection
8 (S)
Shengmu (S)
Some livestock grazing
Increased logging for fuelwood
9
East of Daocheng city
Protected land, some livestock grazing
Chinese caterpillar fungus collection
10
Xiepo
Some livestock grazing
Increased logging for house building, Chinese caterpillar fungus collection
11 (N)
Julong (N)
Increased logging for house building and fuel wood
11 (S)
Julong (S)
Increased logging for house building and fuel wood
12
Gewa
Increased logging for house building and fuel wood, mushroom collection
13
Wumingshan
Some livestock grazing
Increasing livestock, Chinese caterpillar fungus collection
During the past 10 years, the price of the Chinese caterpillar fungus has increased dramatically, causing the people of Daocheng to search for and collect them. Local traders say that the Chinese caterpillar fungus is mainly sold to the eastern provinces of China, such as Beijing and Guangdong. Mushroom collection has also appealed to local people over the past 10 years. The mushrooms are mainly exported to Japan at high prices. Now, the collection of Chinese caterpillar fungi and mushrooms has become the main income-generating activity of the local people from late April to August which is the breeding season for pheasants.
As the income from fungus and mushroom collection has increased, tractors have become more common in pastures. This allows farmers to have larger production of livestock for sale at markets and, as a result, they have more time to devote to increase the production of milk from their yaks. The result is that yaks are now found in all subalpine shrub and grassland areas except the steepest slopes.
Tourism is the big change in land use at all sites with protection and all the sites without tourism are the ones without protection (Tables 3 and 4). In more recent years, Daocheng has become famous for its Buddhist pilgrimage site at Yading. In the past, the habitat of the nature reserve was preserved by local people because of their admiration of the three snow-capped mountains and much primary forests remain in the area. The Chonggu Monastery, located in a tourist area, is surrounded by undisturbed forests, dominated by spruce and larch. Local people report that previously the white eared-pheasant always used to visit the monastery, but are now not seen at all.
The travel industry is well-developed in Yading and large numbers of tourists visit the monastery every day, especially in May (the May holiday) and October (the national holiday). During our survey of the forests close to the monastery and along the tourist route in June, we did not record a single White Eared-pheasant. They were found only 1 km away from the monastery, where six were seen in a virgin forest close to the tree line. During our survey along the tourist route, White Eared-pheasant calls were heard from the forests far away and two were seen about 500 m from the path. This contrasted sharply with the close proximity of birds at other monasteries.
The travel industry is starting to become established in all of the monasteries surveyed. However, few people visit these monasteries, apart from the Chonggu Monastery, because of bad roads and hence, serious disturbance from tourism has not yet affected these monasteries and their surrounding habitats.
Previously, the Tibetans here saw the killing of fish, birds and wild animals as a sin; nobody was allowed to catch and eat them, even those that were domesticated. More recently, local people in tourist destinations and Daocheng City have started to accept the lifestyle of tourists and others from non-Tibetan areas. Although they still practise Buddhism, they accept that animals are the food of tourists. In Daocheng City and the villages close to Yading, the local people, apart from elderly villagers, accept the consumption of fish, chicken and rabbits. Some of them also eat animals themselves and some local youths catch fish for food or for selling to restaurants. In contrast in some villages, far away from travel sites such as Sangdui and Suochong, local people maintain their tradition of conserving wild animals and stop the catching of fish and the killing of wild animals. The monks in Zhujie monastery do not even eat eggs, considering it to be the killing of chicks.
In Daocheng County, most of the restaurants are managed by non-Tibetans. Tourists are the main customers in the restaurants, especially during the holidays in May and October. In order to accomodate the taste of the tourists, fish, chicken and rabbits are often used to attract them, regardless of the consumption of the animals being considered a sin in the local Buddhist culture. Reportedly, all of the fish for sale in restaurants is caught in the rivers of Daocheng and nearby counties by fishermen using nets and poison. Rabbits and chickens, sold in restaurants, are domestic.
Discussions with tourists revealed that most of them did not know the Tibetan philosophy towards wildlife conservation. They tended to taste the local food made from the animals and do not share the consciousness that Tibetans see killing birds, fish and wild animals as a sin. Those involved in tourism do not tell and local people say that they do not mention this since they wish to appear friendly to the tourists.
Large skins of leopards and otters now often appear as dress items, compared with the small pieces of skin previously used as decoration on clothing. Interestingly, the local people do not make the connection between skin and the killing of animals and so, having such decorative pelts, is not a problem for them. Animal skins for clothing is one of the main items of expenditure by local people and tourists always seem to enjoy the spectacle of clothes made from skins. This has resulted in local people becoming proud of showing their clothes. In Daocheng City, ten leopard skins were reported to have been on sale to local people in 2004 (Zouping Yuan pers. comm.).
Discussions with the officers of local government revealed that they were of both Tibetan and Han nationality. Most of them follow the 'modern' way of life and are losing the traditional lifestyle. They eat fish, rabbits and chicken in restaurants and some of them were disposed towards hunting before it became illegal. They said that their emphasis was now to make tourism the mainstay of the local economy and are prepared to meet all the demands of tourists in order to attract them to Daocheng. They accept the changes in the local culture towards wildlife conservation.
Discussion
Status of pheasants
Of the pheasants we recorded in Doacheng County all, except the Tibetan Snowcock, primarily inhabited forests and their adjacent areas below 4700 m (Cheng, 1978). Information from elsewhere suggests that while none are globally threatened species (the White Eared-pheasant and Chinese Grouse are Near-threatened: IUCN, 2011), they are of the highest national conservation concern, with a general lack of detailed information on which to determine precisely their up-to-date conservation status. There is little information on the population status of these species or the pressures that may affect their long-term survival on the Tibetan Plateau and in the Hengduan mountains. Indeed, surveys in southwestern China are considered a high priority in the 2000–2004 IUCN/WPA Pheasant Action Plan (Fuller and Garson, 2000).
The very recent and ongoing changes in the cultural conservation of these species and their habitats in the Tibetan areas of western Sichuan may indicate a significant change in their conservation prospects both locally and more widely.
The White Eared-pheasant is native to the south-east Tibetan Plateau and Hengduan mountains (Cheng, 1978). It has been listed in Appendix I of CITES and the Second Class of State Protected Animals of China (Zheng and Wang, 1998). From elsewhere, there is information on its habitat use and breeding biology (Li et al., 1965; Li et al., 1976; Jiang, 1979; Gema et al., 1999; Jia et al., 2004; Jia et al., 2005a, 2005b, 2005c; Tang et al., 1996; Wang et al., 2005a, b). The Blood Pheasant is listed in the China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals as Vulnerable and as a National Second Class Protected Species (Zheng and Wang, 1998). The Buff-throated Partridge is listed in the China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals as Vulnerable (Zheng and Wang, 1998) and is native to the Hengduan mountains (Cheng, 1978). The Chinese Grouse is listed in the China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals as an Endangered species and as a National First Class Protected Species (Zheng and Wang, 1998). Some work has been conducted on its status (Sun, 2000), natural history (Sun, 1997) and habitat selection (Li et al., 2005). The Koklass, in contrast, has a substantial global distribution extending from Afghanistan in the west, along the Himalayas and into China, where it is widespread (Cheng, 1978; Lu, 1991). The Common Pheasant is also a wildly spread species in Asia, extending to southeastern Europe (Cheng, 1978; Lu, 1991). The Tibetan Partridge occurs along the Himalayas and on the Tibetan Plateau (Cheng, 1978). There is little known about its ecology in detail apart from descriptions of its habitats (Cheng, 1978; Lu, 1991). The Tibetan Snowcock is listed in the China RedData Book of Endangered Animals as the National Second Class Protected Species (Zheng and Wang, 1998). It is endemic in the Tibetan Plateau and Hengduan mountains, where it occurs at elevations between 3000 and 6000 m (Cheng, 1978). There is some information on its habitats and breeding ecology (Li, 1965; Cheng, 1978; Zheng and Pi, 1979; Huang et al., 1990; Liu and Wang, 1990; Lu, 1991; Ma et al., 1991).
The White Eared-pheasant has a special position in local culture because of its white color and size and is the favored bird among the local population. Other pheasants were encountered less frequently than the White Eared-pheasant during our survey and local people did not show interest in them as they were not thought to be colorful. The religious and cultural sentiment is the main reason why the regions inhabited by Tibetan people have large animal populations and high animal diversities (Ma, 2004). Hence, local culture is the umbrella under which pheasants and other wildlife are being conserved in Daocheng. In eastern China, the use of pesticides on farmland decreased the population of wildlife including some pheasant species in nearby areas (Wang et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2003). Traditional agriculture in Daocheng does not allow the use of pesticide to increase production. Hence, farmland provides a compatible foraging habitat for the White Eared-pheasants and other pheasants living in the adjacent forest, especially in the winter.
Pressures on forests and pheasants
The traditional way of life of the people of Daocheng County led to few, if any, pressures on wild animals. In Daocheng County, before laws were introduced to promote wildlife conservation, local culture was well matched to achieve it. Increased wealth from business, mainly the commercial exploitation of caterpillar fungi and mushroom has benefited many people in Daocheng. With increasing wealth has come a desire for a higher standard of living, as evidenced from bigger houses and more animal skins in their clothing. Although local people conserve White Eared-pheasant directly through feeding and by forbidding hunting, they do not take a holistic view of its conservation. Logging was observed in large patches of forests that are not under local cultural protection. In Daocheng, the traditional house style of Tibetan families is a two-story building, made of stone and wood. In recent years, the need for timber increased as the income of local people has risen and they are seeking to build larger houses; when they become wealthy, the first thing they want to do is to have a big house. A traditional house was about 20 m × 20 m and its size tends to become larger with increased family income. The supports and roof of a house are made of wood, which come from felled trees. At the same time, big houses also results in many trees and shrubs being cut for fuel wood and forest fires.
Changes in the way of life of local people
The traditional way of life of the people of Daocheng County led to few, if any, pressures on wild animals. In Daocheng County, before laws were introduced to promote wildlife conservation, local culture was well matched to achieve it. However, there was some hunting, mainly by non-Tibetans who carried out business or were office workers in county towns. Increased wealth from business, mainly the commercial exploitation of caterpillar fungi and mushrooms has benefited many people in Daocheng. With increasing wealth has come a desire for a higher standard of living, as evidenced from bigger houses and more animal skins in their clothing.
With the improvement of roads into the county, Daocheng has been opened up to the people from other cultures and this is eroding the traditional way of life. Local government policy is to increase tourism into this area and this speeds up the loss of local values as the tastes and preferences of visitors are catered to. At present most of this is evident in Chonggu Monastery and nearby areas where tourists come in large numbers. Although the impact from tourism has not yet affected the habitat and wildlife in other monasteries yet, improved traffic conditions by local people will attract more and more tourists to the monasteries. The challenge now is to learn lessons from Chonggu quickly so that the forests and wildlife surrounding other monasteries may retain their cultural protection.
Benelli, G., Desneux, N., Romano, D., Conte, G., Messing, R.H., Canale, A., 2015. Contest experience enhances aggressive behaviour in a fly: when losers learn to win. Sci. Rep. 5, 9347.
Boucherie, P.H., Gallego-Abenza, M., Massen, J.J.M., Bugnyar, T., 2022. Dominance in a socially dynamic setting: hierarchical structure and conflict dynamics in ravens’ foraging groups. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 377, 20200446.
Bronstein, J., 2001. Exploitation of mutualism. Ecol. Lett. 4, 277–287.
Bronstein, J. (Ed.), 2015. Mutualism. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Bruno, J.F., Stachowicz, J.J., Bertness, M.D., 2003. Inclusion of facilitation into ecological theory. Trends Ecol. Evol. 18, 119–125.
Bshary, R., Grutter, A.S., 2005. Punishment and partner switching cause cooperative behaviour in a cleaning mutualism. Biol. Lett. 1, 396–399.
Burger, J., Gochfeld, M., 1984. The effects of relative numbers on aggressive interactions and foraging efficiency in gulls: the cost of being outnumbered. Bird Behav. 5, 81–89.
Bush, J.M., Quinn, M.M., Balreira, E.C., Johnson, M.A., 2016. How do lizards determine dominance? Applying ranking algorithms to animal social behaviour. Anim. Behav. 118, 65–74.
Chase, I.D., Seitz, K., 2011. Self-structuring properties of dominance hierarchies: a new perspective. In: Huber, R., Bannasch, D.L., Brennan, P. (Eds.), Advances in Genetics. Academic Press, London, pp. 51–81.
Chase, I.D., Tovey, C., Spangler-Martin, D., Manfredonia, M., 2002. Individual differences versus social dynamics in the formation of animal dominance hierarchies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 5744–5749.
Chen, C.C., Hsieh, H., 2002. Composition and foraging behaviour of mixed-species flocks led by the grey-cheeked fulvetta in Fushan experimental forest, Taiwan. Ibis 144, 317–330.
Coppinger, B.A., Carlson, N.V., Freeberg, T.M., 2023. Mixed-species groups and the question of dominance in the social ecosystem. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 378, 20220097.
David, H.A., 1988. The Method of Paired Comparisons. C, Griffin, London.
de Vries, H., Stevens, J.M.G., Vervaecke, H., 2006. Measuring and testing the steepness of dominance hierarchies. Anim. Behav. 71, 585–592.
Dolby, A.S., Grubb Jr., T.C., 1998. Benefits to satellite members in mixed-species foraging groups: an experimental analysis. Anim. Behav. 56, 501–509.
French, A.R., Smith, T.B., 2005. Importance of body size in determining dominance hierarchies among diverse tropical frugivores. Biotropica 37, 96–101.
Gil, M.A., Emberts, Z., Jones, H., St Mary, C.M., 2017. Social information on fear and food drives animal grouping and fitness. Am. Nat. 189, 227–241.
Goodale, E., Beauchamp, G., 2010. The relationship between leadership and gregariousness in mixed-species bird flocks. J. Avian Biol. 41, 99–103.
Goodale, E., Beauchamp, G., Magrath, R.D., Nieh, J.C., Ruxton, G.D., 2010. Interspecific information transfer influences animal community structure. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 354–361.
Goodale, E., Beauchamp, G., Ruxton, G.D., 2017. Mixed-Species Groups of Animals: Behavior, Community Structure, and Conservation. Academic Press, London.
Goodale, E., Ding, P., Liu, X., Martínez, A., Walters, M., Robinson, S.K., 2015. The structure of multi-species flocks and their role in the organization of forest bird communities, with special reference to China. Avian Res. 6, 14.
Goodale, E., Sridhar, H., Sieving, K.E., Bangal, P., Colorado, G.J., Farine, D.R., et al., 2020. Mixed company: a framework for understanding the composition and organization of mixed-species animal groups. Biol. Rev. 95, 889–910.
Hino, T., 1998. Mutualistic and commensal organization of avian mixed-species foraging flocks in a forest of western Madagascar. J. Avian Biol. 29, 17–24.
Hobson, E.A., 2020. Differences in social information are critical to understanding aggressive behavior in animal dominance hierarchies. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 33, 209–215.
Holekamp, K.E., Strauss, E.D., 2016. Aggression and dominance: an interdisciplinary overview. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 12, 44–51.
Hsu, Y.Y., Earley, R.L., Wolf, L.L., 2006. Modulation of aggressive behaviour by fighting experience: mechanisms and contest outcomes. Biol. Rev. 81, 33–74.
Hutto, R.L., 1994. The composition and social organization of mixed-species flocks in a tropical deciduous forest in western Mexico. Condor 96, 105–118.
Janzen, D.H., 1985. The natural history of mutualisms. In: Bouche, D.H. (Ed.), The Biology of Mutualism: Ecology and Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Jiang, A., 2007. The Study of Understory Birds in Nonggang Karst Forest. Master’s Thesis.. Guangxi University, Nanning, China.
Jiang, D., Sieving, K.E., Meaux, E., Goodale, E., 2020. Seasonal changes in mixed-species bird flocks and antipredator information. Ecol. Evol. 10, 5368–5382.
Krams, I.A., Krama, T., Freeberg, T.M., Krams, R., Sieving, K.E., 2020a. Attacks of songbirds in mixed-species flocks by Eurasian Sparrowhawks: strategies of predators and potential prey. J. Field Ornithol. 91, 367–374.
Krams, I.A., Luoto, S., Krama, T., Krams, R., Sieving, K., Trakimas, G., et al., 2020b. Egalitarian mixed-species bird groups enhance winter survival of subordinate group members but only in high-quality forests. Sci. Rep. 10, 4005.
Laskowski, K.L., Wolf, M., Bierbach, D., 2016. The making of winners (and losers): how early dominance interactions determine adult social structure in a clonal fish. Proc. R. Soc. A B 283, 20160183.
Lea, A.J., Learn, N.H., Theus, M.J., Altmann, J., Alberts, S.C., 2014. Complex sources of variance in female dominance rank in a nepotistic society. Anim. Behav. 94, 87–99.
Leighton, G.M., Lamour, D., Malcolm, K., Miller, E.T., 2022. Both morphological and behavioral traits predict interspecific social dominance in birds. J. Ornithol. 164, 163–169.
Majolo, B., Vizioli, A.D., Martinez-Inigo, L., Lehmann, J., 2020. Effect of group size and individual characteristics on intergroup encounters in primates. Int. J. Primatol. 41, 325–341.
Martin, P.R., Ghalambor, C.K., 2014. When David beats Goliath: the advantage of large size in interspecific aggressive contests declines over evolutionary time. PLoS One 9, e108741.
Miller, E.T., Bonter, D.N., Eldermire, C., Freeman, B.G., Greig, E.I., Harmon, L.J., et al., 2017. Fighting over food unites the birds of North America in a continental dominance hierarchy. Behav. Ecol. 28, 1454–1463.
Mills, S.C., Cote, I.M., 2010. Crime and punishment in a roaming cleanerfish. Proc. R. Soc. B 277, 3617–3622.
Morse, D.H., 1977. Feeding behavior and predator avoidance in heterospecific groups. Bioscience 27, 332–339.
Pierce, V., Grubb Jr., T.C., 1981. Laboratory studies of foraging in four bird species of deciduous woodland. Auk 98, 307–320.
Qin, M., Leng, W., Zhao, P., 2013. Evaluation and utilization of eco-tourism climate resources in Chongzuo City. J. Meteorol. Res. Appl. 34, 52–56 (in Chinese).
Sanchez-Tojar, A., Schroeder, J., Farine, D.R., 2018. A practical guide for inferring reliable dominance hierarchies and estimating their uncertainty. J. Anim. Ecol. 87, 594–608.
Shelley, E.L., Tanaka, M.Y.U., Ratnathicam, A.R., Blumstein, D.T., 2004. Can Lanchester’s laws help explain interspecific dominance in birds? Condor 106, 395–400.
Soons, J., Herrel, A., Genbrugge, A., Aerts, P., Podos, J., Adriaens, D., et al., 2010. Mechanical stress, fracture risk and beak evolution in Darwin’s ground finches (Geospiza). Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 365, 1093–1098.
Sridhar, H., Beauchamp, G., Shanker, K., 2009. Why do birds participate in mixed-species foraging flocks? A large-scale synthesis. Anim. Behav. 78, 337–347.
Suhonen, J., 1993. Risk of predation and foraging sites of individuals in mixed-species tit flocks. Anim. Behav. 45, 1193–1198.
Sullivan, K.A., 1985. Selective alarm calling by downy woodpeckers in mixed-species flocks. Auk 102, 184–187.
Terborgh, J., 1990. Mixed flocks and polyspecific associations, costs and benefits of mixed groups to birds and monkeys. Am. J. Primatol. 21, 87–100.
Waite, T.A., Grubb Jr., T.C., 1988. Copying of foraging locations in mixed-species flocks of temperate-deciduous woodland birds: an experimental study. Condor 90, 132–140.
Yasuda, C.I., Matsuo, K., Hasaba, Y., Wada, S., 2014. Hermit crab, Pagurus middendorffii, males avoid the escalation of contests with familiar winners. Anim. Behav. 96, 49–57.
Zamudio, K.R., Sinervo, B., 2000. Polygyny, mate-guarding, and posthumous fertilization as alternative male mating strategies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 14427–14432.
Zhang, Q., Han, R.C., Zhang, M., Huang, Z., Zou, F., 2013. Linking vegetation structure and bird organization: response of mixed-species bird flocks to forest succession in subtropical China. Biodivers. Conserv. 22, 1965–1989.
Zhang, Q., Holyoak, M., Goodale, E., Liu, Z., Shen, Y., Liu, J., et al., 2020. Traitenvironment relationships differ between mixed-species flocking and nonflocking bird assemblages. Ecology 101, e03124.
Zhou, L., Peabotuwage, I., Gu, H., Jiang, D., Jiang, A., Zhang, M., et al., 2019. The response of mixed-species flocks to anthropogenic disturbance and elevational change in southwest China. Condor 121, duz028.
Zou, F., Chen, G., Yang, Q., Fellowes, J., 2011. Composition of mixed-species flocks and shifts in foraging location of flocking species on Hainan Island, China. Ibis 153, 269–278.
Zou, F., Chuan Lim, H., Marks, B.D., Moyle, R.G., Sheldon, F.H., 2007. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of the Grey-cheeked Fulvetta (Alcippe morrisonia) of China and Indochina: a case of remarkable genetic divergence in a “species”. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 44, 165–174.
DownLoad:
Email Alerts
RSS Feeds