Floods and other extreme events have disastrous effects on wetland breeding birds. However, such events and their consequences are difficult to study due to their rarity and unpredictable occurrence.
Methods
Here we compared nest-sites chosen by Reed Parrotbills (Paradoxornis heudei) during June?August 2016 in Yongnianwa Wetlands, Hebei Province, China, before and after an extreme flooding event.
Results
Twenty-three nests were identified before and 13 new nests after the flood. There was no significant difference in most nest-site characteristics, such as distance from the road, height of the reeds in which nests were built, or nest volume before or after the flood. However, nests after the flood were located significantly higher in the vegetation compared to before the flood (mean ± SE: 1.17 ± 0.13 m vs. 0.75 ± 0.26 m, p < 0.01). However, predation rate also increased significantly after the flood (67% vs. 25%, p = 0.030).
Conclusions
Our results suggested that Reed Parrotbills demonstrated behavioral plasticity in their nest-site selection. Thus, they appeared to increase the height of their nests in response to the drastically changing water levels in reed wetlands, to reduce the likelihood that their nests would be submerged again by flooding. However, predation rate also increased significantly after the flood, suggesting that the change in nest height to combat the threat of flooding made the nests more susceptible to other threats, such as predation. Animals' response to rare climatic events, such as flooding, may produce ecological traps if they make the animals more susceptible to other kinds of threats they are more likely to continue to encounter.
The size of the nesting population of Ardeids and the distribution of their colonies in China has been continually under study. In southern China, Young and Cha (1995) described the dominant status of the Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) in the Pearl River Delta, Guangdong Province as well as the location of colonies in this area. Wong et al. (2004) discovered 44 nesting colony sites in Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan provinces. In Hainan, Liang et al. (2006) reported up-to-date information of nesting Ardeids on this island. In other parts of China, Fasola et al. (2004) revealed a large population of Ardeids in the Yangtze River area, while Zhu and Zou (2001) listed 127 nesting colony sites in China. However, none of these published papers covered Guizhou, a province in southwestern China whose topography is characterized by a mixture of hills and cultivated basin lands. In addition, Ardeids and the location of their nesting colonies in this province may be affected by the belief of some indigenous populations that these waterbirds are often regarded as lucky or unlucky creatures (Liang, pers. comm.). Ardeids and their nests are disturbed once they are spotted in villages and farmlands. Given that the locations of Ardeid nesting colonies are poorly known and their distribution probably affected by the culture of the local people, a survey was conducted in 2006 to establish the current status of nesting Ardeids in this province. Hence, we report on the distribution of nesting colonies and the abundance of their nests in central Guizhou. Conservation advice on protecting important colonies is also provided.
Study area and methods
Study area
Guizhou Province (24°30′–29°13′N, 103°31′–109°30′E) is situated in the southwestern part of China and covers an area of 176100 km2, accounting for 1.83% of the total area of the Peoples' Republic of China. The average elevation is 1100 m. Mountains and hills make up 92.5% of the total provincial area. Most upland areas are located in the west, where the elevation ranges between 1500 and 2800 m. The middle part of the province has an average elevation of around 1000 m. In the north, east and south the average elevation drops to 500 m. The climate of Guizhou is dominated by subtropical monsoons, i.e. wet summers and dry winters. The mean temperature ranges from 3℃ in January to 26℃ in July. Annual rainfall varies between 1100 and 1400 mm.
The western part of the province is dominated by grazing lands, while the other parts are covered by extensive terraced fields, where rice, rape, cereal and maize are cultivated. The total area of agricultural farmland is about 17694 km2. Given that Guizhou is a hilly province, farmlands are generally located in the valleys between mountains and in terraced areas. During the survey period, the main crops growing were rice, wheat and vegetable. Rice fields are permanently inundated, while the wheat and vegetable fields were dry, at a typical height of about 0.6 m, which is too overgrown for egrets and herons to feed. Other potential feeding habitats were low-lying streams and, depending on rainfall, seasonally inundated abandoned farmlands.
Field methods
Known nesting colonies in central Guizhou were surveyed between 5 and 12 May 2006 (Table 1, Fig. 1). New colonies were located by 1) confirming previous observations suggestive of breeding activity, 2) while traveling between colonies and 3) reports from villagers. Each nest, containing either incubating adults or the presence of chicks, was considered as one nest and it was counted by direct observation. The number of nests of a species was taken to be the sum of the number of nests of that species in each colony. In addition, the types of habitat of nesting colonies, broadly classified as feng shui wood, woodland, bamboo and gardens, were recorded. A feng shui wood is defined as lowland woodland behind villages, preserved for reasons of Chinese geomancy (Corlett et al., 2000).
Table
1.
Number of nests and survey dates of surveyed colonies in central Guizhou, China, between 5 and 12 May 2006
Colony
Survey date
Elevation (m)
Habitat type a
Little Egret
Cattle Egret
Black-crowned Night Heron
Chinese Pond Heron
Grey Heron
Total
% b
1. Yanfu Resort
5 May
250
A
361
18
84
463
29.2
2. Tiantai
5 May
301
B
50
64
114
7.2
3. Wanglong
5 May
310
B
90
5
95
6.0
4. Guandu
5 May
319
B
70
70
4.4
5. Yangliu Primary School
6 May
881
B
2
19
21
1.3
6. Luobolin
6 May
868
B
10
2
12
0.8
7. Chenxing Village
6 May
852
B
2
13
15
0.9
8. Xinping Primary School
7 May
806
B
7
34
41
2.6
9. Fengyunyan
7 May
750
C
53
344
69
466
29.4
10. Maqiao Village
12 May
923
B
48
76
6
50
180
11.3
11. Baihua Lake
12 May
1233
D
96
12
2
110
6.9
Total
789
94
434
268
2
1587
100.0
Per cent (%)
49.7
5.9
27.3
16.9
0.1
100.0
a In habitat type, A, secondary woodland and bamboo; B, feng shui wood; C, woodland and gardens; D, secondary woodland dominated by pine trees. b % = relative abundance
Figure
1.
Survey route and locations of nesting colonies (black dots) in central Guizhou, China (insert: the location of Guizhou in China (shaded area))
During the survey, a total of 1587 nests of five Ardeids, i.e. Little Egret (Egretta garzetta), Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis), Chinese Pond Heron (Ardeola bacchus), Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) and Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) in 11 nesting colonies were all found in the northern part of Guizhou (Table 1, Fig. 1, Plate Ⅰ). A previous active colony at Daizhang Village, Huangping County was visited but only Chinese Pond Herons were found and no breeding activity was observed. No colonies were found at Leigongshan Nature Reserve and its nearby areas, i.e. Xijiang Town, Leishan County in the southern part of Guizhou, where rice fields were present (Fig. 1).
Plate Ⅰ.
Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) showing breeding plumage (a) and feeding young (b), and Chinese Pond Heron (Ardeola bacchus) showing breeding plumage and color of legs (c) and young (d) (Photos by Xiaojie Su)
The largest colony was found at Fengyunyan (No. 9 in Table 1, accounting for 29.4% of the total number of nests), while the smallest was at Luobolin (No. 6, 0.8% of total number of nests, Table 1). The Yanfu Resort colony (No. 1) contained the largest number of Little Egret nests (56% of the total number of nests of this species). The Fengyunyan colony contained the largest number of Black-crowned Night Herons (80%) and Chinese Pond Heron nests (26%), while the Maqiao Village colony (No. 10) was the largest nesting site of Cattle Egrets (81%).
Numerically, Little Egret was the dominant breeding species (49.7% of the total number of nests) and Grey Heron the least abundant (0.1%) (Table 1). Little Egret was also the most widespread breeding species for it bred in all colonies. The Chinese Pond Heron bred in all colonies, except those at the Yanfu Resort and Guandu (No. 4). The Cattle Egret and Black-crowned Night Heron bred in two or three colonies, while the Grey Heron bred only at the Baihua lake colony (No. 11).
Nesting habitat and elevation
In central Guizhou, eight nesting colonies were situated in feng shui woods (Table 1). Woodland and artificial gardens were recorded at Baihua Lake and Fengyunyan. Bamboo was an addition to the vegetation type of colonies at the Yanfu Resort. Nests in feng shui wood colonies were built on trees about 10–20 m high. All colonies were located at elevations of 250 m or higher. The highest colony recorded in the survey was at Baihua Lake (1233 m), while the lowest was at Yanfu Resort (250 m).
Protection status
No colonies are officially protected. They appear to be accepted by the local villagers and landowners, as no signs of disturbance were observed during the survey. In the Yanfu Resort, the footpaths of this private property are not open to the public and accessibility to this site is restricted. However, this island colony is still accessible via river transport. The colony at Fengyunyan is indirectly protected by its status as a theme park. This site is walled and an admission fee is charged. Thus, these two colonies are restricted to the public.
Discussion
The present survey showed that, in central Guizhou, egrets and herons were mainly nesting in the northern part of this province and, in particular, no Ardeid nesting colonies were found in the southern part of Guizhou (i.e. Leigongshan Nature Reserve and Xijiang Town). The distribution pattern of Ardeid nesting colonies is apparently affected by the location of ricefields, which is the key feeding habitat of nesting egrets and herons elsewhere (Kushlan, 2000). Although no land use statistics for Guizhou are available for making a comparison, ricefields (summer wet crop) were generally present around the colonies during the survey. In contrast, nesting colonies were absent from areas dominated by wheat and vegetable fields (winter dry crop). For instance, no activities of egrets and herons were seen along the 70 km stretch between Renhuai to Xishui, an area dominated by dry winter crops during the survey. Local experience revealed that the crop rotation periods vary between years and is greatly affected by rainfall patterns. Rice is planted later if the rainy season (from April to August) starts late and the rainfall is light. During the survey period, it was noted that there was little rainfall, which had started later than normal – in May, and therefore most farmlands were still dominated by dry winter crops. It is likely therefore, that the number of nests may be lower than in previous years. Also, it is expected that the nesting birds will suffer from prolonged drought during early breeding seasons due to inadequate wet feeding habitats if the rainy season in Guizhou is delayed.
To our surprise, during the survey from Kaili City to Leishan County, the southern part of Guizhou Province, where prime feeding habitats are present, no egrets or herons were seen in ricefields or large rivers. Locals reported that egrets and herons are considered to be unlucky creatures in this region and therefore, they are disturbed immediately if they are spotted around villages. Thus, the traditional culture of the local people might be another important factor influencing the distribution of nesting colonies in Guizhou. However, further investigations on this issue are needed and more data should be collected.
Only about one-third of the total area of Guizhou was surveyed in this study, but it already indicated that nesting egrets and herons could make use of flatlands in the basin and terraced ricefields in this relatively hilly province. It is suggested that a territory-wide survey should be conducted to assess the total nesting population in this province and to identify the most important colonies for conservation. Based on the findings of this survey, conservation priority should be given to the colonies at Yanfu Resort and Fengyunyan, which contained about 70% of the total number of nests in central Guizhou. These two colonies should be designated as official protected areas. Currently, they are unofficially protected by their status of private ownership and controlled access. Stationing authorized persons at the colonies, who could prosecute hunters, should be considered. Priority should also be given to protecting the largest colonies of the Chinese Pond Heron and Cattle Egret at Tiantai and the Maqiao Village.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Lew Young and Mike Kilburn for their comments on the earlier draft. We also thank Zhigang YU and Hong JIANG from the Guizhou Institute of Biology, China, for their help during the survey. The cost of this study in Guizhou was covered by Hainan Normal University.
Allen JA. Frequency-dependent selection by predators. Philos Trans R Soc B. 1988;319:485-503.
Altwegg R, Roulin A, Kestenholz M, Jenni L. Demographic effects of extreme winter weather in the barn owl. Oecologia. 2006;149:44-51.
Anteau MJ, Shaffer TL, Sherfy MH, Sovada MA, Stacker JH, Stucker JH. Nest survival of piping plovers at a dynamic reservoir indicates an ecological trap for a threatened population. Oecologia. 2012;170:1167-79.
Battin J. When good animals love bad habitats: ecological traps and the conservation of animal populations. Conserv Biol. 2004;18:1482-91.
Bayard TS, Elphick CS. Planning for sea-level rise: quantifying patterns of saltmarsh sparrow (Ammodramus caudacutus) nest flooding under current sea-level conditions. Auk. 2011;128:393-403.
Cancellieri S, Murphy MT. Experimental analysis of nest-site choice and its relationship to nest success in an open-cup-nesting passerine. Auk. 2014;131:539-48.
Chalfoun AD, Thompson FR, Ratnaswamy MJ. Nest predation and fragmentation: a review and meta-analysis. Conserv Biol. 2002;16:306-18.
Chambers LE, Devney CA, Congdon BC, Dunlop N, Woehler EJ, Dann P. Observed and predicted effects of climate on Australian seabirds. Emu. 2011;111:235-51.
Cody ML. Habitat selection in birds. Orlando: Academic Press; 1985.
Cuervo JJ. Nest-site selection and characteristics in a mixed-species colony of avocets Recurvirostra avosetta and black-winged stilts Himantopus himantopus. Bird Study. 2004;51:20-4.
Cuervo JJ, Møller AP. Temporal variation in population size of European bird species: effects of latitude and marginality of distribution. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e77654.
Demongin L, Poisbleau M, Strange I, Quillfeldt P. Effects of severe rains on the mortality of southern rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome) chicks and its impact on breeding success. Ornitol Neotrop. 2010;21:439-43.
Donovan TM, Thompson FR. Modeling the ecological trap hypothesis: a habitat and demographic analysis for migrant songbirds. Ecol Appl. 2001;11:871-82.
Dugger KM, Ryan MR, Galat DL, Renken RB, Smith JW. Reproductive success of the interior least tern (Sterna antillarum) in relation to hydrology on the Lower Mississippi River. River Res Appl. 2002;18:97-105.
Fu Y, Chen B, Dowell SD, Zhang Z. Nest predators, nest-site selection and nest success of the Emei Shan Liocichla (Liocichla omeiensis), a vulnerable babbler endemic to southwestern China. Avian Res. 2016;7:18.
Ghalambor CK, Mckay JK, Carroll SP, Reznick DN. Adaptive versus non-adaptive phenotypic plasticity and the potential for contemporary adaptation in new environments. Funct Ecol. 2007;21:394-407.
Greenberg RG, Elphick C, Nordby JC, Gjerdrum C, Spautz H, Shriver G. Flooding and predation: trade-offs in the nesting ecology of tidal-marsh sparrows. Stud Avian Biol. 2006;32:96-109.
Hansell MH. Bird nests and construction behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2000.
Hatchwell BJ, Russell AF, Fowlie MK, Ross DJ. Reproductive success and nest-site selection in a cooperative breeder: effect of experience and a direct benefit of helping. Auk. 1999;116:355-63.
Hildén O. Habitat selection in birds. Ann Zool Fenn. 1965;2:53-75.
Horvath O. Seasonal differences in rufous hummingbird nest height and their relation to nest climate. Ecology. 1964;45:235-41.
Hunter EA. How will sea-level rise affect threats to nesting success for seaside sparrows? Condor. 2017;119:459-68.
Hunter EA, Nibbelink NP, Cooper RJ. Threat predictability influences seaside sparrow nest site selection when facing trade-offs from predation and flooding. Anim Behav. 2016;120:135-42.
Jakubas D. Factors affecting the breeding success of the grey heron (Ardea cinerea) in northern Poland. J Ornithol. 2005;146:27-33.
Jenouvrier S. Impacts of climate change on avian populations. Glob Change Biol. 2013;19:2036-57.
Jiang A, Jiang D, Zhou F, Goodale E. Nest-site selection and breeding ecology of streaked wren-babbler (Napothera brevicaudata) in a tropical limestone forest of southern China. Avian Res. 2017;8:28.
Jiguet F, Julliard R, Thomas CD, Dehorter O, Newson SE, Couvet D. Thermal range predicts bird population resilience to extreme high temperatures. Ecol Lett. 2006;9:1321-30.
Jones J. Habitat selection studies in avian ecology: a critical review. Auk. 2001;118:557-62.
Li D, Wei H, Sun X, Zhang Z. Nest-site selection of reed parrotbill in the mosaic reed harvesting habitats. Acta Ecol Sinica. 2015;35:5009-17.
Li D, Zhang Z, Grim T, Liang W, Stokke BG. Explaining variation in brood parasitism rates between potential host species with similar habitat requirements. Evol Ecol. 2016;30:905-23.
Ma L, Yang C, Liu J, Zhang J, Liang W, Møller AP. Costs of breeding far away from neighbors: isolated host nests are more vulnerable to cuckoo parasitism. Behav Process. 2018;157:327-32.
Macdonald EC, Camfield AF, Martin M, Wilson S, Martin K. Nest-site selection and consequences for nest survival among three sympatric songbirds in an alpine environment. J Ornithol. 2016;157:1-13.
Maisey AC, Carter NT, Incoll JM, Bennett AF. Environmental influences on variation in nest-characteristics in a long-term study population of the superb lyrebird, Menura novaehollandiae. Emu. 2016;116:445-51.
Marshall RM, Reinert SE. Breeding ecology of seaside sparrows in a Massachusetts salt-marsh. Wilson Bull. 1990;102:501-13.
Martijn VDP, Ens BJ, Heg D, Brouwer L, Krol J, Maier M. Do changes in the frequency, magnitude and timing of extreme climatic events threaten the population viability of coastal birds? J Appl Ecol. 2010;47:720-30.
Martin TE. Nest predation and nest sites. Bioscience. 1993;43:523-32.
Martin TE. Avian life history evolution in relation to nest sites, nest predation, and food. Ecol Monogr. 1995;65:101-27.
Martin TE, Scott J, Menge C. Nest predation increases with parental activity: separating nest site and parental activity effects. Proc R Soc B: Biol Sci. 2000;267:2287-93.
Mérő TO, Žuljević A, Varga K, Lengyel S. Habitat use and nesting success of the great reed warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus) in different reed habitats in Serbia. Wilson J Ornithol. 2015;127:477-85.
Møller AP. Behavioral and life history responses to extreme climatic conditions: studies on a migratory songbird. Curr Zool. 2011;57:351-62.
Moreno J, Møller AP. Extreme climatic events in relation to global change and their impact on life histories. Curr Zool. 2011;57:375-89.
Murdoch WW. Switching in generalist predators: experiments on prey specificity and stability of prey populations. Ecol Monogr. 1969;39:335-54.
Palomino JJ, Martin-Vivaldi M, Soler M, Soler JJ. Functional significance of nest size variation in the rufous bush robin Cercotrichas galactotes. Ardea. 1998;86:177-85.
Piper SD, Catterall CP. Effects of edge type and nest height on predation of artificial nests within subtropical Australian eucalypt forests. Forest Ecol Manag. 2004;203:361-72.
Robertson BA, Hutto RL. A framework for understanding ecological traps and an evaluation of existing evidence. Ecology. 2006;87:1075-85.
Shisler BJ, Colony J. Nest site selection in laughing gulls in response to tidal flooding. Condor. 1980;82:249-56.
Sidle JG, Carlson DE, Kirsch EM, Dinan JJ. Flooding: mortality and habitat renewal for least terns and piping plovers. Colon Waterbirds. 1992;15:132-6.
Soler M. Long-term coevolution between avian brood parasites and their hosts. Biol Rev. 2014;89:688-704.
Vanderwerf EA. Evolution of nesting height in an endangered Hawaiian forest bird in response to a non-native predator. Conserv Biol. 2012;26:905-11.
Via S, Gomulkiewicz R, De JG, Scheiner SM, Schlichting CD, van Tienderen PH. Adaptive phenotypic plasticity: consensus and controversy. Trends Ecol Evol. 1995;10:212-7.
Yang C, Møller AP, Ma Z, Li F, Liang W. Intensive nest predation by crabs produces source-sink dynamics in hosts and parasites. J Ornithol. 2014;155:219-23.
Sudhakar Deeti, Isaac Tjung, Cody Freas, et al. Heavy rainfall induced colony fission and nest relocation in nocturnal bull ants (Myrmecia midas). Biologia, 2024, 79(5): 1439.
DOI:10.1007/s11756-024-01634-4
2.
Giovanna Sandretti-Silva, Leandro Corrêa, Mariana Amirati, et al. The win-stay, lose-switch renesting strategy of a territorial bird endemic to subtropical salt marshes. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 2024, 12
DOI:10.3389/fevo.2024.1497317
3.
Wan Chen, Keer Miao, Kun Guo, et al. Potential Geographic Range of the Endangered Reed Parrotbill Paradoxornis heudei under Climate Change. Biology, 2023, 12(4): 560.
DOI:10.3390/biology12040560
4.
Marek Elas, Erik Rosendal, Włodzimierz Meissner. The Effect of Floods on Nest Survival Probability of Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos Breeding in the Riverbed of a Large Lowland European River. Diversity, 2023, 15(1): 90.
DOI:10.3390/d15010090
5.
Pan Chen, Yanhong Chen, Huimin Chen, et al. Vinous-throated parrotbills breed in invasive smooth cordgrass habitat: Can native birds avoid the potential ecological trap?. Avian Research, 2023, 14: 100119.
DOI:10.1016/j.avrs.2023.100119
6.
Lei Cheng, Lizhi Zhou, Chao Yu, et al. Flexible nest site selection of the endangered Oriental Storks (Ciconia boyciana): Trade-off from adaptive strategies. Avian Research, 2023, 14: 100088.
DOI:10.1016/j.avrs.2023.100088
7.
Vikas Kumar, Himanshu Mishra, Prateek, et al. Nest characteristics, egg attributes, and hatching success of river lapwing, Vanellus duvaucelii. Ornithology Research, 2022, 30(2): 118.
DOI:10.1007/s43388-022-00089-y
8.
Paul J. Haverkamp, Inga Bysykatova-Harmey, Nikolai Germogenov, et al. Increasing Arctic Tundra Flooding Threatens Wildlife Habitat and Survival: Impacts on the Critically Endangered Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus). Frontiers in Conservation Science, 2022, 3
DOI:10.3389/fcosc.2022.799998
9.
Ma Laikun, Yang Canchao, Liang Wei. Nest-Site Choice and Breeding Success among Four Sympatric Species of Passerine Birds in a Reedbed-Dominated Wetland. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 2021, 12(1)
DOI:10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2021.01.003
10.
Jihen Boukhriss, Slaheddine Selmi. Drivers of nest survival rate in a southern Tunisian population of Laughing Doves (Spilopelia senegalensis). Avian Research, 2019, 10(1)
DOI:10.1186/s40657-019-0183-4
Table
1.
Number of nests and survey dates of surveyed colonies in central Guizhou, China, between 5 and 12 May 2006
Colony
Survey date
Elevation (m)
Habitat type a
Little Egret
Cattle Egret
Black-crowned Night Heron
Chinese Pond Heron
Grey Heron
Total
% b
1. Yanfu Resort
5 May
250
A
361
18
84
463
29.2
2. Tiantai
5 May
301
B
50
64
114
7.2
3. Wanglong
5 May
310
B
90
5
95
6.0
4. Guandu
5 May
319
B
70
70
4.4
5. Yangliu Primary School
6 May
881
B
2
19
21
1.3
6. Luobolin
6 May
868
B
10
2
12
0.8
7. Chenxing Village
6 May
852
B
2
13
15
0.9
8. Xinping Primary School
7 May
806
B
7
34
41
2.6
9. Fengyunyan
7 May
750
C
53
344
69
466
29.4
10. Maqiao Village
12 May
923
B
48
76
6
50
180
11.3
11. Baihua Lake
12 May
1233
D
96
12
2
110
6.9
Total
789
94
434
268
2
1587
100.0
Per cent (%)
49.7
5.9
27.3
16.9
0.1
100.0
a In habitat type, A, secondary woodland and bamboo; B, feng shui wood; C, woodland and gardens; D, secondary woodland dominated by pine trees. b % = relative abundance
DownLoad:
Email Alerts
RSS Feeds